The Law of Torts in Canada, 2nd Edition

Professor Gerald H.L. Fridman, Q.C., F.R.S.C.

1. Introduction
2. Compensation
1. The Purpose of Damages
2. Distinguished from Punishment
3. Damages not an Exclusive Remedy
4. Damages and Restitution
5. Non-compensatory Relief
6. Compensation without Tort
3. A Duty Imposed by Law
1. Incidence
2. Scope
3. The Sources of Duty
4. Contract and Tort
4. Private and Public Wrongs

1. A Tripartite Division
2. Strict Liability: Causation
3. Intention
4. Negligence
5. Causation Versus Fault
6. Other Views
7. Conclusion

1. Introduction
2. Essential Common Features
1. Force
2. Directness
3. Strict Liability
4. Presumption of Damage
3. The Consequence of Trespass

1. Ingredients of Liability
1. An Act of Trespass
1. The Scope of Interference
2. Continuing Trespass
3. Trespass ab initio
2. Land
3. The Defendant's State of Mind
4. The Right to Sue
2. Defences
1. No Intent to Trespass
2. Necessity
3. Entry as of Right
4. Consent
5. Justification
6. Legality under Statute
7. Entry by Police
3. Remedies
1. Damages
2. Injunction

1. Forms of Trespass to the Person
1. Introduction
2. Battery and Assault
3. False Imprisonment
4. Intentional Infliction of Nervous Shock
2. The Defendant's State of Mind
1. Intention and Negligence
2. Mistake
3. Insanity
4. Infancy
3. Defences
1. Protection of Oneself and One's Property
1. Generally
2. Trespassers
3. Recovering Goods
4. Self-Defence
5. Provocation
2. Consent
1. Generally
2. Sports
3. Fights
4. Medical and Dental Treatment
3. Statutory Authority
1. Generally
2. Force under the Criminal Code
3. Lawful Arrest
4. Discipline
5. Illegality of Plaintiff
6. Previous Criminal Proceedings
4. Damages
1. In General
2. Aggravated Damages
3. Punitive of Exemplary Damages

1. Requirements of Liability
1. An Act of Trespass
2. Appropriate Subject Matter
3. The Mental Element
4. Title to Sue
1. Actual Possession
2. Right to Possession
2. Defences

1. Introduction
2. Conversion
1. Definition
2. Scope
3. Acts of Conversion
4. Strict Liability
5. The Right to Sue
6. Defences
7. Remedies
1. Damages
1. Time for assessment
2. Assessment
3. Mitigation
4. Punitive damages
5. Effect of judgment
2. Specific Restitution
3. Detinue
1. Characteristics of Detinue
2. The Right to Sue
3. Remedies
4. Replevin

1. Definition of Private Nuisance
2. Forms of Nuisance
1. Damage
2. Interference
3. Factors Affecting Liability
1. Nature of the Locality
2. Unreasonableness
3. Intention, Knowledge and Foresight
4. Intensity and Duration
5. The Sensitive Plaintiff
4. The Right to Sue
5. The Incidence of Liability
6. Defences
1. Prescription
2. The Plaintiff's Conduct
3. Public Benefit
4. Statutory Authority
7. Remedies
1. Damages
2. Injunctions
3. Abatement
8. Private Actions for Public Nuisance
1. What is Public Nuisance?
2. Remedies for Public Nuisance
3. Private Actions

1. The Doctrine of Rylands v. Fletcher
1. Statement of the Doctrine
2. Comparison with Other Torts
3. Scope of the Doctrine
4. Requisites of Liability
1. Non-Natural User
2. Collection or Accumulation
3. The Defendant's Own Purposes
4. Dangerous Objects
5. Escape
5. Defences
1. The Plaintiff's Conduct
2. Lack of Causation
3. Act of God
4. Act of Stranger
5. Statutory Authority
2. Liability for Fire

1. Introduction
2. Cattle Trespass
3. The Scienter Doctrine
1. Common Law
1. The Doctrine Stated
2. Animals within the Doctrine
1. “Wild” animals
2. “Tame” animals
3. Dangerous Propensity
4. Knowledge of the Propensity
5. The Incidence of Liability
6. Defences
1. Contributory negligence
2. Consent
3. Act of stranger
4. Act of God
2. Under Statute
4. Negligence
1. In General
2. Accidents on the Highway
1. Negligence on the Highway
2. Escape onto the Highway
5. Seizure of Animals
6. Damage to Animals

1. Responsibility for Others
1. Direct and Vicarious Liability Distinguished
2. Rationale of Vicarious Liability
3. Categories of Vicarious Liability
4. Special Problems
1. Hospitals
2. The Crown
3. Motor Vehicles
4. Transferred Employees
2. The Scope of Liability
1. Agents and Servants
1. The Test of Liability
2. Authority
3. The Course of Employment
4. Prohibited Acts
5. Non-Sexual Assaults
6. Sexual Assaults
7. Fraud
2. Independent Contractors
1. The General Principle
2. When Vicarious Liability is Imposed

1. Introduction
2. The Concept of Duty of Care
1. Origins
2. Foreseeability
3. Proximity
4. The Role of Policy
3. The Application of Anns/Kamloops
1. Public Authorities
2. Unborn Children
3. Rescuers
4. Defective Buildings
5. Nervous Shock
6. Negligent Misrepresentation
1. Evolution of a Duty of Care
2. The Requirements of a Duty of Care
1. A special relationship
2. Foresight of reliance
3. Reasonable reliance
3. The Recognition and Denial of a Duty of Care
1. In general
2. Lawyers
3. Governmental and similar bodies
4. Negligent Misrepresentation and Contract
7. Economic Loss
1. Before Hedley Byrne
2. After Hedley Byrne
3. Before the Norsk Case
4. Norsk and After
5. The Effect of Norsk

1. The Content of a Duty
2. Unreasonable Conduct
3. Foresight of Harm
4. Failure to Take Precautions
5. Risk Versus Purpose
6. The Spectrum of Negligence
7. Customary Practices
8. Gross Negligence

1. Onus on Plaintiff
2. Res Ipsa Loquitur
3. The Situation Before Fontaine
1. The Legal Character of Res Ipsa Loquitur
2. Scope
3. When Applicable
4. The Effect of Res Ipsa Loquitur
4. The Situation After Fontaine

1. Introduction
2. Causal Connection
3. Causation and Remoteness
4. The Effect of Extrinsic Factors
1. The Condition of the Plaintiff
2. A Later Occurrence
3. A Combination of Acts
4. An Independent Subsequent Event
5. Intervention by the Plaintiff
5. Factors Affecting Burden of Proof

1. Inevitable Accident
2. Illegality of the Plaintiff
3. Consent
1. Meaning and Effect
2. Elements of the Defence
3. Express Bargain
4. Implied Bargains
1. Knowledge
2. Agreement
5. Special Situations
1. Employment
2. Rescuers
3. Games and Sports
4. Drunken Driving
5. Medical Cases
4. Contributory Negligence
1. General Nature and Effect
2. The Meaning of Contributory Negligence
1. Negligence
2. Causatioin
3. A Sole Cause?
3. Contributory Negligence Legislation

1. Assessment
2. Damage to Realty
3. Damage to Chattels
1. Repair
2. Value
3. Loss of Use
4. Non-fatal Personal Injuries
1. General Principles
2. Loss of Earnings
3. Collateral Benefits
4. Pre-trial Nursing and Housekeeping
5. Future Care
6. Non-pecuniary Losses
7. Mitigation
8. Aggravated Damages
9. Non-compensatory Damages
5. Fatal Injuries
1. Claims by the Victim's Estate
2. Claims by Dependants
1. Outside Ontario
2. In Ontario

1. A Special Form of Duty
2. The Evolution of the Duty
1. Before 1932
2. Since 1932
3. Elements of the Duty
1. Avoidance of Defects
2. Control
3. Examination
4. Warning
4. Scope of the Duty
1. Incidence of Liability
2. “Things” to Which the Duty Applies
3. Who May Sue
5. Damages

1. Introduction
1. Occupation and Ownership
2. Occupancy and Activity
3. Lawful and Unlawful Visitors
4. Differentiation of Duties
2. The Common Law
1. Scope of the Duties
2. Incidence of Liability
3. Classes of Entrants and the Duties Owed
1. Introduction
2. Contractual Entrants
1. Definition
2. The occupier's duty
3. Invitees
1. Meaning of the term
2. The invitor's duty
3. Unusual danger
4. Knowledge of the occupier
5. Reasonable care
4. Licensees
1. Scope of the term
2. The occupier's duty
5. Trespassers
1. A residuary class
2. Retreat from unconcern
3. Children
1. The Statutes
1. Replacement of the Common Law
2. Scope of the Acts
1. Occupiers
2. Premises
3. Visitors
3. The Duty
1. Content
2. Qualifications of the Duty
1. Assumptions of risks
2. Restriction of duty
3. Contributory negligence
4. Landlords

1. A Special Duty
1. The Common Law and its Limitations
2. Replacement of the Common Law
3. Supplementing the Common Law
4. Distinction from Other Duties
2. Application of the Common Law Duty
1. Employees
2. Transferred Employees
3. Volunteers
4. Apprentices
3. Nature and Content of the Duty
1. Safety
2. Negligence
3. Delegation
4. Property
4. Defences
1. Volenti
2. Contributory Negligence
3. Common Employment

1. Introduction
2. Elements of Liability
1. Duty of Care
2. A Misrepresentation
3. Negligence
4. Reliance
5. Damage
3. Defences
1. Contributory Negligence
2. Exclusion Clause

1. The Action for Breach of Statutory Duty
2. Statutory Negligence before 1983
3. The Pre-1983 Situation Summarised
4. The Saskatchewan Wheat Pool Case
5. The Effect of the Decision

1. The Elements of Actionable Defamation
1. A Defamatory Statement
2. What is Defamatory
3. Innuendo
4. A Novel Doctrine
5. Reference to the Plaintiff
6. Publication
2. Parties
1. Who May Sue
2. Who May Be Sued
3. Libel and Slander
1. The Distinction
2. Importance of the Distinction
1. Proof of Damage
2. Exceptions: Slander Actionable Per Se
3. Criminal Liability
4. Defences
1. Justification
2. Fair Comment
1. Comment Not Facts
2. Public Interest
3. Fairness
3. Privilege
1. Nature of the Defence
2. Absolute Privilege
1. At common law
2. By statute
3. Qualified Privilege
1. At common law
1. Definition
2. Situations where qualified privilege applies
3. Where privilege is not applicable
4. Broadening qualified privilege?
5. Excess of privilege
2. By statute
4. Consent
5. Remedies
1. Damages
1. Introduction
2. Measure of Damages at Common Law
3. Statutory Provisions Affecting Damage
4. Punitive Damages
2. Injunctions

1. Introduction
2. Privacy
1. The Meaning of Privacy
2. Common Law Remedies
3. Statutory Causes of Action
4. Judicial Discussion of the Statutes
3. Breach of Confidence

1. Husband and Wife
1. The Common Law
2. Statutory Reform
2. Parent and Child
1. Action by Parent
2. Action by Child

1. The Action Per Quod Servitium Amisit
1. Nature of the Action
2. A Master-Servant Relationship
3. Scope of the Action
2. What is Recoverable
3. Limitations on Liability
1. Death
2. Termination
3. No Cause of Action

1. The Legal Relevance and Effect of Fraud
2. The Elements of Liability in Deceit
1. A False Statement
2. Knowledge of the Falsity
3. Intent to Deceive
4. Reliance by the Plaintiff
5. Damage Caused by Reliance
3. Damages

1. The Nature of Conspiracy
1. Introduction
2. Development of Definition
3. Conspiracy in Canadian Law
2. Elements of Liability
1. Agreement
2. Intention
3. Unlawful Acts
4. Damage
3. Defences
1. Justification
2. Statutory Protection of Trade Unions

1. The Tort of Intimidation
2. Problems
3. Essentials of Liability
1. Two-Party Intimidation
2. Three-Party Intimidation
4. The Defence of Justification

1. Introduction
2. Inducing Breach of Contract
1. Origins and Nature
2. Elements of Liability
1. Knowledge
2. Intention
3. Inducement
1. Direct
2. Indirect
4. Damage
3. Justification
3. Interference Without Breach
1. Limitation of Lumley v. Gye
2. Interference with Existing Contracts
3. Interference with Economic Relations or Interests

1. Introduction
2. Injurious Falsehood
1. Origins and Development
2. The Scope of Liability
3. Requirements of Liability
1. Introduction
2. Falsity
3. Malice
4. Damage
3. Passing-Off
1. At Common Law
1. Scope and Nature
2. The Structure of Classical Passing-Off
1. Reputation and goodwill
2. Confusion
3. Deception
4. Damage
3. The Expansion of Passing-Off
2. Under Statute
1. The Trade Marks Act
2. Constitutionality of the Act
3. Jurisdiction under the Act
4. Effect of the Act

1. Introduction
2. Malicious Prosecution
1. Nature and Scope
2. Elements of Liability
3. A Prosecution
4. Termination in the Plaintiff's Favour
5. Lack of Reasonable and Probable Cause
6. Malice
7. Functions of Judge and Jury
8. Damage
3. Other Maliciously Instituted Proceedings
4. Immunity
1. Judges
2. Official Prosecutors
5. Maintenance and Champerty
6. Spoliation

1. Introduction
2. Misfeasance in Public Office
3. Requirements for Liability
1. Malice
2. Knowledge
4. Importance of the Tort

1. Multiple Wrongdoers
1. Terminology
2. Joint Tortfeasors
3. Several Tortfeasors
2. The Consequences of Multiple Wrongdoing
1. Joint and Several Liability
1. Effect of a Judgment
2. Effect of Release
2. Contribution Between Tortfeasors
1. At Common Law
2. Statutory Provisions
3. Scope of the Statutes
4. Effect of the Statutes

• Index